DeLisha Milton-Jones scored 22 points and Kristi Toliver added 12 of her 17 points in the fourth quarter to lead the Los Angeles Sparks to a 81-77 victory over the Chicago Sky in the WNBA on Wednesday.
Lindsay Wisdom-Hylton had career highs of 16 points and 13 rebounds for the Sparks (9-17), who move within a half-game of fourth-place Minnesota in the race for the final Western …
Bernard Hermon has long been a hip-hop fan.
So when he had the chance to register for Professor Emmett Price's "Hip Hop Culture" course, the Brandeis junior jumped at the opportunity.
"I thought the course would be very elementary," admits Harmon. "I thought we would discuss things that I already knew about the music - but that wasn't the case."
The course melds history, sociology, media deconstruction and politics to explore the evolution and development of hip-hop culture, beginning in the 1950s and '60s. Price developed the course in 2000 as a post-doctoral fellow at Washington University in St. Louis, Mo.
"It's really important for there to be discourse …
Stocks opened moderately higher Thursday, a day after stocks staged an extraordinary reversal and after weekly figures on workers seeking unemployment figures suggested the job market is holding up.
Investors will try as the trading day unfolds to determine whether the market's late-day comeback Wednesday was in part due to technical reasons or whether it represented any shift in sentiment.
A Labor Department report appeared to offer Wall Street some room for optimism. The number of people seeking unemployment benefits fell for a fourth straight week. Applications for benefits dropped by 1,000 to 301,000 last week _ pushing claims down to the lowest level in …
David Farr and Simon Reade, the new artistic directors at theBristol Old Vic (BOV), have re-branded the Theatre Royal and the NewVic Studio in their first season.
According to the brochure, plays are performed in either theBristol Old Vic Main House or the Bristol Old Vic Studio, which cutsdown on muddle and stamps BOV's brand over the whole theatre complex.
And why not? BOV have new artistic directors, a new positiveoutlook and something to shout about - and that confidence is nowreflected in their brochure.
A spokesman for BOV said: "There are Theatre Royals everywhere,but there's only one Bristol Old Vic." However, the company has nointention to deny any …
The Vice Admiral James B. Stock- dale Center for Ethical Leadership at the U.S Naval Academy recently held its annual McCain Conference. The conference's theme was a timely but often neglected topic in our think tanks and service-academy and ser- vice-school curriculums: "Ethics and Military Contractors: Examining the Public-Private Partnership." Three of the featured speakers were MG Eric Olson, U.S. Army retired, former com- manding general of the 25th Infantry Division (Light); Erik Prince, former CEO of Blackwater; and James Jay Carafano, a senior research fellow with the Heritage Foundation. Each of these speakers highlighted the benefits as well as pitfalls of relying on civilian …
SAO PAULO (AP) — Neymar hit the woodwork twice Sunday as Santos was held to a 0-0 draw by Corinthians in the first leg of the Sao Paulo state final.
The return match will be next weekend, when defending champion Santos will have the advantage of playing at home at the Vila Belmiro stadium. Another draw will prompt a penalty shootout.
Neymar, currently the most talked-about player in Brazilian football, created the best scoring chances but came up just short of finding the net at the Pacaembu stadium.
The Brazil striker struck the right post in the 23rd minute after dribbling past a defender and firing an angled shot from close range. The shot beat Corinthians goalkeeper …
Barcelona has signed captain Carles Puyol to a three-year contract extension that keeps the defender with the Spanish champions through 2013.
Barcelona says on its Web site that the 31-year-old Spain international's buy-out clause was set at euro10 million ($14.8 million).
Puyol said he was "very …
WASHINGTON Sales of new homes rose to the fastest pace in a yearduring July, the Commerce Department said today, as optimisticconsumers took advantage of relatively low mortgage rates.
Amid signs that consumer confidence remained buoyant in August,the government said new-home sales posted a third straight monthlyrise in July, up 0.4 percent to a seasonally adjusted annual rate of715,000. That was the strongest sales rate since March, 1994, whensales were running at 722,000 a year.
A separate report from private industry's Conference Board inNew York said its measure of consumer confidence eased only slightlyin August to 101.0 after a big bound in July to 101.4 …
ANCHORAGE, Alaska (AP) — A rocket launched from an Alaska island Tuesday is carrying an experimental Navy satellite designed to provide safer combat communications.
The satellite will allow troops with radios to communicate without the need to position antennas in dangerous settings, said Peter Wegner, director of the Department of Defense's Operationally Responsive Space Office.
The liftoff from the state-owned Kodiak Launch Complex for the Naval Research Laboratory project is for a yearlong mission. The system will be assessed after that period to determine if it should become permanent, Wegner said, after the satellite was sent up inside the nose of a Minotaur IV …
France's state-owned nuclear engineering giant Areva SA said Thursday its sales grew in the first quarter thanks to strong export demand for its range of reactors and related services.
The Paris-based company reported sales for the three months to March 31 of euro1.94 billion (US$2.57 billion), up 6.5 percent from euro1.82 billion a year earlier.
The nuclear engineering is a rival to reactor builders such as General Electric Co. of the United States; Westinghouse Electric Co., a subsidiary of Japan's Toshiba Corp., and Russia's Atomstroyexport. It sad quarterly data is volatile in its industry and isn't a reliable indicator of annual trends.
…
* I think its so funny that Kanawha County Sheriff Dave Tuckerdoes not mess up one hair on his head or do anything to mess up hisuniform when hes capturing these terrible, terrible criminals. n Tothe venter who said he was camping out along the highway due to lackof jobs: Please go to David Satterfields office and camp out in frontof his office. Hes the one responsible and is very incompetent * Tothe venter who commented about Chuck Landon writing great human-interest stories: Then let him get a job as a human-interest writer.Hes certainly not a sports writer. * Just what is figured in the cost-of-living formula? Social Security recipients received a 2.1 percentCOLA raise, …
PARIS (AP) — The 2012 Tour de France will start from the Belgian city of Liege, organizers said Friday.
Cycling's showcase race has been keen to host its 'Grand Depart' in different countries. The 2007 …
WASHINGTON - Five companies - AT&T, Level 3 Communications, Qwest Communications, Sprint Nextel and Verizon - on Thursday were awarded a federal telecommunications contract worth up to $20 billion over 10 years.
The winners of the so-called Networx Enterprise contract must now compete with each other to win business from agencies looking to improve their voice, data and other telecom services.
It's the second telecom contract awarded by the General Services Administration in about two months.
In late March, Qwest Communications International Inc., AT&T Inc. and Verizon Communications Inc. were winners of the much larger Networx Universal contract, the government's largest telecom contract ever awarded. That deal is potentially worth up to $48 billion over a decade.
Universal requires companies to not only maintain current agencies' needs, but also offer advanced services, such as Internet-based telephone service, network security and video and Web conferencing, domestically and internationally.
Enterprise has far fewer requirements than the much larger Universal contract and covers a smaller geographic area.
In morning trading, shares of AT&T rose 25 cents to $41.23, while shares of Level 3 Communications Inc. fell a penny to $5.90 and shares of Qwest gained 13 cents to $10.40. Sprint Nextel Corp.'s stock price rose 11 cents to $22.96, while Verizon's declined 10 cents to $43.72.
SEOUL, South Korea - North Korea and the U.S. ignored a South Korean offer to help resolve a banking dispute that has bedeviled progress on Pyongyang's nuclear disarmament, the South's president said Thursday in an interview with The Associated Press.
Roh Moo-hyun added that he believed the Pyongyang regime's nuclear program was strictly a bargaining chip and predicted North Korean leader Kim Jong Il would give up the bombs if his conditions were met: security guarantees, economic aid and normal relations with the U.S.
"North Korea harbors huge anxieties or fears toward the United States and (South Korea). And in this climate, North Korea, I believe, chose the development of a nuclear program, and with this nuclear program I believe they try to use it as a negotiating tool," Roh said during an interview with AP President and CEO Tom Curley. "This was a political strategy."
Roh, whose term expires in February, also said there could be time while he is in office to hold a summit with Kim - but only if the North moved to abandon its nuclear program.
International talks on North Korea's nuclear arms program have been beset by repeated delays since late 2002, when Pyongyang expelled U.N. inspectors after Washington accused the communist nation of running a secret uranium enrichment program in violation of a 1994 disarmament deal.
Most recently, the process has deadlocked over some $25 million in North Korean accounts frozen in a Macau bank. That bank was blacklisted in 2005 by Washington for alleged complicity in counterfeiting U.S. dollars and money laundering by the Pyongyang regime.
Washington agreed to help free the money to win North Korea's promise to shut down its sole operating nuclear reactor by mid-April and eventually dismantle its weapons program. But the money has not yet been withdrawn because other banks have shunned the tainted funds - and North Korea has refused to lock down its reactor until it gets the money.
Roh said his government had hoped to help to resolve the dispute. He did not elaborate on the offer, but local news media have said Seoul was considering asking a South Korean bank to be the middleman for getting the money to a North Korean account.
"We have offered to help in resolving the issue to both sides, but after our offer there has not been an answer from either side," Roh said, referring to Washington and Pyongyang.
The top U.S. negotiator on North Korea, Assistant Secretary of State Christopher Hill, appealed Thursday for Pyongyang to shut its reactor regardless of the financial dispute.
A senior North Korean official rejected the appeal.
"From the beginning, our position has been consistent" that the North will close the Yongbyon reactor only after receiving the funds, Kim Myong Gil, an official at North Korea's U.N. mission in New York, told AP by telephone. "There is no other way."
Roh left open the possibility of meeting with Kim, which would be only the second such Korean summit. Kim met in 2000 with then South Korean President Kim Dae-jung.
However, Roh said no meeting could happen without movement at the North Korea nuclear talks, which also include China, Japan, Russia, South Korea and the U.S.
The two Korean states, which remain technically at war because the 1950-53 Korean War ended in a cease-fire, have been pursuing efforts to reconcile in recent years. But ties cooled last year after North Korea tested long-range missiles in July and then conducted its first nuclear test explosion in October.
Rapprochement efforts resumed after the North pledged initial steps toward nuclear disarmament.
A high-level delegation from North Korea was in Seoul for reconciliation talks set to end Friday, where the South has insisted the North start to dismantle its weapons program before Seoul delivers promised aid.
Roh said Seoul would continue to use aid as leverage in pressing the North to disarm. South Korea has drawn criticism at home and abroad over its "sunshine policy" of continued engagement even as Pyongyang holds on to its nuclear weapons.
"The fact that the Korean government is practicing the 'sunshine policy' toward North Korea does not mean that we forfeit all rights to take issue with North Korea's missile launches and nuclear test," Roh said. "Although we fully embrace the 'sunshine policy,' I believe that what has to be said, has to be said."
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Associated Press writers Jae-soon Chang and Beth Duff-Brown contributed to this report.
Scherazade was a talker. She stretched out 200-some tales over1,001 Arabian nights to convince her sultan bridegroom not to haveher executed.
Trinity Square Ensemble has put together an original adaptation- Chicago's first, in recent memory - of "The Arabian Nights" thatwill run just 14 nights. The storytelling began Thursday night andwill continue through Aug. 30 at the Raven Theatre, 6931 N. Clark(328-0330).
"There is no script that we could locate," says Deborah Stewartof Trinity Square. "So our cast of six improvised. . . . We kept theArabian style and costumes, more or less, but this production isupdated in that it's not Moslem-oriented. We've taken out a lot ofthose references to appeal to a broader audience."
Also maintained have been the bawdy comedy and exotic magic ofthe original tales about Aladdin, Sinbad, Genii and other bizarrecharacters. Marge Uhlarik directs this "adult entertainment."
MEMORABLE: The Illinois Stage Company of Northern IllinoisUniversity and Pegasus Players are presenting Neil Simon'sautobiographical comedy "Brighton Beach Memoirs" for a short run.James O'Reilly, director of artistic development at Body PoliticTheater, is directing the show through Aug. 16 at the O'Rourke Centerfor the Performing Arts at Truman College, 1145 W. Wilson (271-2638).
CONVENTIONAL: Suzan Zeder's "Mother Hicks" was writtenespecially for children, but not only for children. Zeder's playsspeak to all ages.
The public is invited to join members of the AmericanAssociation of Theatre for Youth and the American Association forTheatre in Secondary Education, which are meeting this weekend atNorthwestern University, at performances of "Mother Hicks." The showopened Thursday night and will continue at 2 p.m. tomorrow, Sundayand Aug. 15 and 16 at the Ethel M. Barber Theater of the Theater andInterpretation Center, 1979 Sheridan, Evanston (491-7282). Rives B.Collins directs.
"Mother Hicks" tells the story of three social outcasts: adeaf-mute boy, a nameless orphan girl and the title character - anaccused witch. They find each other and a magic more powerful thanwitchcraft. Dean ("Dummy Hoy") Cannavino, deaf since birth, isfeatured as the boy. Three performances will be signed for thehearing impaired.
`ANNIE' UP: The winsome family musical about a winsome orphan'ssearch for her parents, with the help of Daddy Warbucks, will opentonight at the winsome Bethel Performing Arts Center, 3220 W. 98th,Evergreen Park (423-2730), and continue through Aug. 30. SusanPagels directs a cast of 52, assisted by music director CatherineKogut-Simon.
HAMMED-UP HAMLET: A black comedy set in the wacky world of astock exchange is the third show of the Playwrights' Center 1987season. "Hamlet, Prince of Wall Street" will open tonight for afive-week run at 3716 N. Clark (853-0505). This show, writer DougBinkley's second, recounts the mercurial brokerage career of HamletKingley II.
On Stage is a weekly column presenting highlights of theweekend's theater scene. Information may be sent to Joe Pixler incare of Chicago Sun-Times Features, 401 N. Wabash, Chicago 60611.Items to be considered for inclusion should be received at least twoweeks before publication.
TOKYO (AP) — Nuclear operator says radiation levels at unit that exploded within legal limits.
Abstract
The present study developed and tested an integrative model of the work-family interface. This model was applied separately to male and female subsamples to assess mean gender differences and gender differences in the links between the variables. Analyses were based on existing questionnaire data from 320 participants who were full-time professional employees of Canadian organizations. Gender differences were found in the relationship between family demands and family interference with work, while the results for family interference with work and job satisfaction, and family satisfaction and life satisfaction were equivocal. These results generally provide support for previous research indicating that an asymmetry continues to exist between men and women in their work and family roles. The limitations and practical implications of these findings are discussed.
R�sum�
Dans le cadre de la pr�sente �tude, nous avons �labor� et mis � l'essai un mod�le d'int�gration de la relation entre le travail et la famille. Ce mod�le a �t� appliqu� s�par�ment aux sous-�chantillons d'hommes et de femmes de mani�re � �valuer la moyenne des diff�rences entre les sexes ainsi que les diff�rences entre les sexes en fonction des variables. Les analyses s'appuyaient sur les donn�es d'un questionnaire auxquels avaient r�pondu 320 participants, des employ�s professionnels travaillant � plein temps dans des organisations canadiennes. Nous avons observ� des diff�rences entre les sexes en ce qui a trait au lien entre les exigences familiales et l'interf�rence de la famille dans le travail, tandis que les r�sultats obtenus en ce qui a trait � l'interf�rence de la famille dans le travail et la satisfaction professionnelle, la satisfaction familiale et la satisfaction personnelle �taient ambigus. En r�gle g�n�rale, ces r�sultats viennent appuyer les conclusions d'une pr�c�dente recherche, qui indiquait qu'il existe encore une asym�trie entre les r�les jou�s par les hommes et les femmes au travail et dans la famille. Les limites et les questions d'ordre pratique issues de ces conclusions sont abord�es.
Managing work and family responsibilities is an increasing problem in today's society due in part to the changing roles of men and women in both the workplace and at home. Not only are women now more likely to work outside the home, but it is now more common for men to fulfill more responsibilities within the home (Duxbury, Higgins, & Lee, 1994; Lero, 2003). This increase in dual-earner couples has led to modifications in the traditional roles and responsibilities men and women fulfill. Although it has been shown that an accumulation of social roles has positive outcomes (Sieber, 1974), fulfilling many roles can also have a negative impact (Cooke & Rousseau, 1984). Existing research suggests that the outcomes are most concerning when there are heavy responsibilities in both the work and family domain (Williams, Suis, Alliger, Learner, & Wan, 1991).
Work-family conflict (WFC) is a type of interrole stress (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985) that results from the incompatible demands that arise in the work and family domains. Much research has demonstrated that WFC can have important effects on both the quality of work and family life. The intention of this study was to examine the role gender plays in the WFC process.1 Because men and women may perceive and react to WFC differently, the aim was to conduct a more complete investigation of gender differences than has been conducted in the past (e.g., Duxbury & Higgins, 1991). Specifically, there were three purposes of the current study: 1) to empirically test an integrative model of WFC using a prospective design; 2) to assess whether there were mean gender differences in domain-specific demands, conflict, and satisfaction; and 3) to apply the general model to subsamplcs of men and women to examine gender differences in the pattern of relationships among the variables. Previous research has relied on cross-sectional designs, limiting the extent to which causal inferences can be drawn from the data. Insight into the nature and extent of gender differences in WFC can facilitate the development of interventions aimed specifically at men and at women to foster healthier organizations. Examination of gender differences might broaden interest in family-supportive policy, especially if the policies show benefits for both sexes.
Work Interfering with Family and Family Interfering with Work
Recently, it has been recognized that research examining the relationship between work and family requires a comprehensive, bi-directional approach (Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1992a). Because it is believed that WFC may originate in either the work or the family domain, Gutek, Searle, and Klepa (1991) have made the distinction between work interference with family (WIF) and family interference with work (FIW). Much of the research in this area has since shown that WIF and FIW have unique work- and family-related antecedents and outcomes (e.g., Frone et al., 1992a).
Although measures of WIF and FIW are strongly correlated, participants frequently report more WIF than FIW (Frone, 2002), which may be a result of work demands being easier to quantify than family demands (Gutek et al., 1991). Further, family boundaries may be more permeable to work demands than are work boundaries to family demands (Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1992b). Not only is it easier to reduce the number of hours spent on family responsibilities, but they also tend to be more flexible than work responsibilities (Duxbury & Higgins, 2002).
Research Purpose 1
The first purpose of this study was to empirically test an integrative model of WFC. Frone, Yardley, and Markel's (1997) model of the W-F interface is the most integrative model to date (Frone, 2002). According to this model, both WIF and FIW are predicted by three types of within-domain demands (distress, overload, and time commitment), as well as by domain-specific social support. Moreover, Frone and associates' research (1992a, 1997) suggests that WIF and FIW have unique role-related outcomes. Specifically, WIF has been related to family dissatisfaction, whereas FIW is predictive of work dissatisfaction (Frone et al., 1997; O'Driscoll, Ilgen, & Hildreth, 1992).
Based on this, a conceptual model was developed to guide the present research (see Figure 1). The most notable addition to the Frone et al. (1997) model is that negative family outcomes and negative work outcomes are shown to lead to negative life outcomes based on the work of Aryee, Fields, and Luk (1999). This model was tested in the current study.
Antecedents
Job demands. When individuals allocate time to fulfill the responsibilities of one role, they have less time available to meet the demands of another role (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Thus, it has been found that the more hours one spends on work-related activities, the higher the level of WIF the individual will experience (Gutek et al., 1991). Further, research has demonstrated that interrole conflict is likely to increase as the demands from either the work role or the family role increase (e.g., Beutell & Greenhaus, 1983; Cooke & Rousseau, 1984). Based on these findings, and the work of Frone et al. (1992a, 1997) and Aryee et al. (1999), the following hypothesis was put forth:
H1: Higher job demands will be associated with higher WIF.
Family demands. Time commitments in the family sphere have also been associated with increased levels of WFC (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Time spent on family responsibilities has been shown to relate to FIW, such that the more hours one spends on family-related activities, the higher the level of FIW the individual experiences (Gutek et al., 1991). Family-related sources of time-based conflict are experienced more by married couples than those who are single (Herman & Gyllstrom, 1977); parents experience more conflict than nonparents (Netemeyer, Boles, & McMurrian, 1996); and parents of younger children experience more conflict than parents of older children (Fleck, Staines, & Lang, 1980). Similarly, as one's obligations toward the family grow (through marriage or the arrival of children), interrole conflict will also increase (Gutek et al., 1991). These arguments, as well as the findings of Frone and colleagues (1992a, 1997) and Aryee et al. (1999), gave rise to the following hypothesis:
H2: Higher family demands will be associated with higher FIW.
Outcomes of WIF and FIW
Work domain. Kossek and Ozeki (1998) conducted a meta analysis that found that WIF was more likely to lead to lowered job satisfaction than to lowered family satisfaction. However, the meta analysis did not include the work of Frone and colleagues (1992), which suggests that the demands and responsibilities associated with one role frequently interfere with the enactment of a second role. They argue that the relationship between WIF and job satisfaction that has been found in previous studies is not a direct relationship, but rather is mediated by the frequency of FIW. Other research has since found similar results (e.g., Aryee et al., 1999). This is because high levels of FIW imply that family demands are interfering with one's ability to accomplish tasks related to the individual's work role (O'Driscoll et al., 1992). Therefore the following hypothesis was tested:
H3: Higher FIW will be associated with lower job satisfaction.
Family domain. It has been postulated that high levels of WIF will lead to lower levels of family satisfaction (Frone et al., 1997) because satisfaction with one's family role is undermined by the frequent inability to participate fully in the family due to work role responsibilities. Some research has indicated that WIF is not related to family satisfaction (Frone et al., 1997), or that WIF is related to family distress only among blue collar workers (Frone et al., 1992a). However, in most previous research, WIF was negatively related to family satisfaction (e.g., O'Driscoll et al., 1992). Based on this, the following hypothesis was put forth:
H4: Higher WIF will be associated with lower family satisfaction.
Life domain. Some researchers consider job and family satisfaction to be components of life satisfaction (Near, Smith, Rice, & Hunt, 1983), while others regard them as causes of life satisfaction (Judge & Watanabe, 1993). Although some research has found negative correlations between WIF and FIW and life satisfaction (Netemeyer et al., 1996), it is now believed that WIF and FIW are related to life satisfaction through family satisfaction and job satisfaction, respectively (e.g., Aryee et al., 1999; Bedeian, Burke, & Moffet, 1988). These studies found that individuals with high levels of job satisfaction or family satisfaction also have high levels of life satisfaction. Life satisfaction was viewed as being composed of several aspects of satisfaction, and therefore positive satisfaction levels in the work and family domains should contribute to higher life satisfaction (Kopelman, Greenhaus, & Connolly, 1983). It was therefore expected that:
H5a: Higher family satisfaction will be associated with higher life satisfaction.
H5b: Higher job satisfaction will be associated with higher life satisfaction.
Research Purpose 2
The second purpose of this study was to examine mean gender differences in various aspects of the W-F interface. The few studies that exist (e.g., Duxbury & Higgins, 1991; Frone et al., 1992a) have been unsystematic and had mixed findings (Voydanoff, 2002) because global WFC measures or measures that confound WIF and FIW are frequently used (e.g., Bedeian et al., 1988; Duxbury & Higgins, 1991). This is an important limitation because research suggests that WIF and FIW have unique role-related antecedents and outcomes (Frone et al., 1992a). Because WFC consists of the two areas of life that have traditionally been gender-specific, gender differences are theoretically important because it can be expected that men and women will perceive and react to WIF and FIW differently.
Although there is some disagreement about the gender differences that exist with respect to work and family, the rational view of WFC has received the most support (e.g., Gutek et al., 1991). The rational view of WFC posits that the amount of conflict an individual perceives increases in proportion to the amount of time spent on work or family roles (e.g., Greenhaus, Bedeian, & Mossholder, 1987; Keith & Schafer, 1980). Therefore, the more time individuals spend fulfilling responsibilities arising from their work role, the more WIF they will experience, and the more time spent fulfilling family responsibilities, the higher the levels of FIW. Further, these roles may have "asymmetrical permeability," meaning that social norms require women to deal primarily with family issues, even when it interferes with their employment (Pleck, 1977). On the other hand, social norms dictate that men should deal with work matters, even at the expense of their family. These findings suggest that either W-F models operate differently for men and women, or that separate models may apply. Support for either of these conclusions would provide a potential explanation for the contradictory findings in the W-F research.
Gender and role demands. Although gender roles have been changing, traditional perceptions of responsibility within the work and family spheres are still being maintained. Loscocco (1997) found that men, unlike women, perceive long hours at work as a way to establish themselves as hard workers. Further, Fredriksen-Goldsen and Scharlach (2001) suggested that women continue to take a more active role as caregivers than men, regardless of familial responsibilities being more balanced between men and women. The rational view of gender differences predicts that men will spend more hours at work, while women will devote more hours to family activities. Gutek et al. (1991), however, found that women tended to devote more hours to family activities, but that the hours devoted to work activities were identical for men and women. They suggested that because both the men and women in their sample were working at full-time jobs, the hours expected at work were similar. Other researchers also have found this lack of gender difference with respect to hours worked per week when work status (i.e., part time vs. full time) distinctions are made (Huffman, Payne, & Castro, 2003). Based on these findings, in the present investigation of full-time employed professionals, it is expected that men and women will have similar mean scores on work demands. But, it was hypothesized that:
H6: Women will have higher mean scores than men on family demands.
Gender and WFC. The impact of gender on WFC is another aspect of the literature where many uncertainties exist. Some research has found no gender differences in WFC (Frone et al., 1992a; Kinnunen & Mauno, 1998). However, Gutek and associates (1991) found that women experienced more WIF than men, even when working identical hours, but that there were no sex differences in regard to FIW. In contrast, Duxbury et al. (1994) found that women experienced more WIF and FIW than men. Lastly, Fu and Shaffer (2001) found that women experienced greater levels of FIW, but men experienced greater levels of WIF. Despite changes both within the work and family sphere, gender differences are still expected to exist due to the differing social roles men and women perform. These gender differences can be understood given that men and women continue to experience substantially different demands on their time, especially in the family domain (Gutek et al., 1991). Based on the rational view of gender differences (Gutek et al., 1991) and Pleck's (1977) notion of asymmetrical permeability, the following hypotheses have been made:
H7a: Men will have higher mean scores than women on WIF.
H7b: Women will have higher mean scores than men on FIW.
Gender and outcomes associated with the W-F interface. To date, there is a paucity of research assessing gender differences on the outcomes associated with experiences of the W-F interface. Bedeian et al. (1988) found no significant differences between women and men on mean levels of job satisfaction, marital satisfaction, and life satisfaction. Further research indicates that gender differences in job satisfaction disappear when variables such as job status, tenure, and education are held constant (Smith & Plant, 1982). Based on these findings, it was expected that where men and women were similar in occupation and status, they would have similar levels of family satisfaction, job satisfaction, and life satisfaction.
Research Purpose 3
The third purpose of this study was to apply the general model to subsamples of men and women and examine gender differences in the path coefficients to examine possible differences in the pattern of relationships among variables. In addition to the paucity of research assessing gender differences on variables within the W-F interface, few studies have examined gender differences in the relationships between different aspects of the W-F interface (e.g., Duxbury & Higgins, 1991; MacEwen & Barling, 1994). This is an important avenue of research in the work-life literature because an understanding of how the antecedents and outcomes are related could aid in comprehending the nature of WFC and in addressing unmet needs to reduce conflict and its negative consequences.
Gender and WFC. It is believed that women are more likely to experience family demands intruding on their work roles due to the traditional gender-based division of labour. At the same time, men will be more likely to have work demands interfering in the family domain (Pleck, 1984; Voydanoff, 1988). These findings have been attributed to differences in societal expectations and behavioural norms for men and women. Further, in a study of military personnel, Huffman et al. (2003) found that time demands (as measured by the numbers of hours worked) were significantly and positively related to WFC for men, but not women. Therefore, the following hypotheses were tested:
H8a: The relationship between work demands and WIF will be stronger for men than for women.
H8b: The relationship between family demands and FIW will be stronger for women than for men.
Gender and outcomes associated with the W-F interface. Duxbury and Higgins (1991) assessed gender differences in the path coefficients between WFC and role outcomes. Their study assessed the quality of workand family-life, stating that domain-specific satisfaction is an important component of both spheres. Their findings suggested that men tend to experience lower levels of quality of family life due to high levels of WFC, whereas women experience lower levels of quality of work life due to high levels of WFC. Contrary to their findings, the rational view of gender differences and Pleck's (1977) asymmetrical permeability suggest that women's family satisfaction should be lowered when work spills over into the family domain, and job satisfaction should be lowered for men when family responsibilities spill over into the work domain. These arguments gave rise to the following hypotheses:
H9a: The relationship between WIF and family satisfaction will be stronger for women, such that women will be more likely than men to experience lower levels of family satisfaction due to higher levels of WIF.
H9b: The relationship between FIW and job satisfaction will be stronger for men, such that men will be more likely than women to experience lower levels of job satisfaction due to higher levels of FIW.
The relationship between domain-specific satisfaction and life satisfaction has been assessed in previous research, but very little attention has been given to gender differences. Duxbury and Higgins (1991) assessed the relationship between life satisfaction and quality of work and family life, but were unable to make a priori hypotheses. The rational view of gender does not posit any predictions about the relationship between work and family satisfaction and general life satisfaction. Therefore, in the present study, this relationship will be assessed in an exploratory manner and research questions rather than specific hypotheses will be posed.
Q1a: Are there gender differences in the relationship between work satisfaction and life satisfaction?
Q1b: Are there gender differences in the relationship between family satisfaction and life satisfaction?
The Current Study
Although the current study considers issues tested in prior investigations, this research expands the literature in a number of important ways. First, this study adds to the literature by examining both mean gender differences on the variables of interest and the path coefficients between separate male and female models.
Second, only professionals were included in the study, thereby reducing the heterogeneity of the sample, which is important since some research has shown differences in WFC between white collar and blue collar workers (e.g., Frone et al., 1992a). An exclusively professional sample allowed a more homogeneous group, while still providing a comparison group for future studies that test different populations of workers.
Third, data used for this investigation were taken over a 20-month period. Past W-F research has almost exclusively utilized cross-sectional designs (e.g., Duxbury & Higgins, 1991; Frone et al., 1997). By contrast, in the present study, role demands were assessed at Time 1, WIF and FIW were taken at Time 2, and all forms of satisfaction (family, work, and life) were measured at Time 3. Individuals who experienced major changes in life events were eliminated after all three waves. The separate administrations in this study are important as results and inferences drawn from cross-sectional research are epistemologically limited.
Method
Participants and Procedure
Data were collected during a larger three-wave Canadian study on work characteristics and attitudes. Surveys were mailed to 2,707 professionals. The participants were identified via the Human Resource departments of their organizations (banking and telecommunication), professional associations (accounting), and university alumni groups (engineering). Data were collected over a 20-month period via mailed questionnaires. Survey 1 assessed demographic characteristics and also included measures of work and family demands. Survey 2 assessed the participants' levels of WIF and FIW, and Survey 3 included scales measuring family, job, and life satisfaction.
Of the 2,707 participants who were originally mailed the survey, 1,611 individuals responded, resulting in a 60% response rate. Further, there were 478 respondents who met the following criteria for selection into the study: a) completed all three waves of the survey, b) were married, and c) had no significant life change either in their work or family situations during the 20-month period. Participants were then separated by gender (300 men and 178 women) and matched based on two demographic variables (level within the organization and type of industry). After removing those who had undergone a change in employer and those participants who were working part-time, a final sample of 160 men and 160 women was chosen. The age of participants ranged from 26 to 62 (M = 39.76; SD = 7.72). On average, these participants had been working in their profession for 17.37 years (SD = 8.3). Further, a breakdown of participants according to occupation revealed that 20.9% were employed in the banking industry, 34.4% worked in accounting, 30.3% were employed in telecommunications, and 14.4% worked in engineering. Results from an ANOVA indicated that there were no significant differences between these groups. Sixty-nine percent of participants had spouses working full-time, and 11.9% had dependent care responsibilities. Twenty-five percent had at least one child under the age of five living at home.
Measures
The scales used to measure the variables of interest were taken from the literature or were adapted from existing sources.
Demographic information. Single-item questions were used to assess variables such as age, gender, level within the organization, length of tenure, size of company, and spouse/partner's employment status.
Demands. Job demands were assessed with six items from the job demands scale (Rosin & Korabik, 1991). This scale measured the frequency with which the respondent engaged in several work-related behaviours (e.g., staying late at work). The response scale ranged from 1 (very infrequently) to 5 (very frequently), with higher scores indicating higher levels of job demands.
Work hours were assessed with a single-item question asking respondents how many hours, on average, they worked per week. These two measures were combined to form a composite for job demands.
Family demands were assessed using a composite of kinship responsibilities (Tingey, Kiger, & Riley, 1996), rather than using time spent in family activities. This was used because time spent in family activities has been a problematic measure in the past. It is believed that this difficulty may stem from the fact that it is easier to accurately estimate the number of hours spent in paid work than spent in family activities (Gutek et al., 1991). This composite was calculated by providing the participants with one unit for each child living at home, one additional unit added for each of these children who was preschool age (under five), and one additional point if the participant provided care to dependents other than their children (elderly parents, dependent siblings, etc.). Higher scores indicated higher levels of family demands. Similar composites have been used successfully in previous research (e.g., Fu & Schaffer, 2001; Rothausen, 1999).
Work-family conflict. WIF was assessed using a four-item measure created by Gutek et al. (1991) based on the work of Kopelman et al. (1983). Four items, paralleling the WlF items, were developed by Burley (1989, as cited in Gutek et al., 1991) to assess FIW. The response options ranged from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5), with higher scores indicating a higher level of work interfering with family.
Satisfaction. Job satisfaction was examined using a five-item facet-free scale developed by Quinn and Staines (1979). Scores on this measure ranged from 5 to 25, with higher scores indicating higher levels of satisfaction with employment.
Family satisfaction was measured using a three-item scale developed by Kopelman et al. (1983) that assessed the respondents' level of satisfaction with their roles and responsibilities within their family. Participants rated their responses from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5), and higher scores indicated higher levels of satisfaction with the participant's family.
Life satisfaction was assessed by combining two measures that examined life satisfaction (Cooke & Rousseau, 1984) and self-satisfaction (Thompson, Kopelman, & Schriesheim, 1992). Higher scores indicated higher life satisfaction.
Results
Research Purpose 1
The means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations among the study variables are presented in Table 1.
Assumptions. Three variables (FIW, family satisfaction, and family demands) were nonnormally distributed. After transformations were attempted, the result showed appreciable improvements in the normality of the distributions in two variables.2 Specifically, FIW was improved by a square root transformation and family satisfaction was improved by a reverse square root transformation. The family demands composite was not appreciably improved by the transformation and because this variable was expected to be nonnormally distributed, the variable was not transformed (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Unless otherwise specified, the following results refer to the transformed data for FIW and family satisfaction.
Twelve multivariate outliers and one univariate outlier were detected and deleted (p < .001) and missing data were replaced with the mean of the measure. It was decided to combine several measures to create stronger indicators. First, the initial reliability analysis of the complete six-item scale for job demands found the internal consistency reliability to be marginally unacceptable (α = .62). Deletion of one item resulted in a somewhat improved reliability (α = .68). Further, a work demands measure was created by standardizing the scores on the job demands scale and the hours of work question. The internal consistency coefficient for the new measure was acceptable (α = .71). This method was also used to create a general life satisfaction measure consisting of the life satisfaction and self-satisfaction scales. The internal consistency coefficient for the new general life satisfaction measure was alpha = .77. Finally, as the family demands measure was a composite, the internal consistency could not be calculated and the value was estimated (a = .85) (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993).
Model estimation. The model was assessed through observed variable path analysis using AMOS (Arbuckle, 1999), which was chosen for several reasons. When the model is overidentified, the estimates of path coefficients are similar for both multiple regression and path analysis. However, because path analysis examines the relationships for each endogenous variable simultaneously, the chance of a Type I error is reduced. Further, path analysis provides several indices that allow for the assessment of overall fit to the model, while also correcting for the biasing effects of error (Kline, 1998).
One of the advantages of observed variable path analysis is the ability of the procedure to account for the biasing effects of measurement. However, due to the use of observed variables, an identification problem arises because it is not possible to estimate both a unique and common factor loading, as well as the variance for one construct using only one indicator. Therefore, to correct for this problem with identification, the variable error variance was fixed to equal the variance of the scale score multiplied by the product of one minus the reliability of the scale score for each indicator (Bollen, 1989).
In addition to examining the fit of the model, the individual parameter estimates within the model were assessed. This allows the assessment of fit for specific aspects of the model, as opposed to the model as a whole. This examination of the individual parameter estimates was used to test Hypotheses 1, 2, 3, 4, 5a, and 5b. The overall fit for the model was acceptable. The χ^sup 2^ was 66.44 with 15 degrees of freedom, p < .001. This finding is not surprising as this test is very sensitive to sample size. The goodness-of-fit index (GFI) was equal to .95, the adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) was .90, and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was .10, showing acceptable fit. However, the comparative fit index (CFI) was .82, which is below the accepted value of .90, indicating that the fit of the model could be improved.
Parameter estimates. Hypothesized relationships were assessed using parameter estimates from the model. A path model with the standardized parameter estimates is presented in Figure 2. As shown, all six of the model parameters were significant in the expected direction. As predicted, work demands were positively related to WIF, H1: β = .29, p < .001 and family demands were positively related to FIW, H2: β = .13, p < .05. In turn, WIF was negatively related to family satisfaction, H4: β = -.16, p < .01, whereas FIW was negatively related to job satisfaction, H3: β = -.20, p < .001. Further, as predicted in Hypotheses 5a and 5b, respectively, general life satisfaction was predicted by both family satisfaction, β = .52, p < .001, and job satisfaction, β = .38, p < .001.
Research Purpose 2
To assess whether there were mean gender differences on the variables of interest, a MANOVA was conducted using gender as the independent variable and all the study variables as dependent variables. This analysis was used to test Hypotheses 6a, 7a, and Tb. The means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations for men and women are presented in Table 2.
The results from the MANOVA showed a statistically significant difference between men and women on the combined dependent variables: F(7, 312) = 5.4, p < .001; Wilk's Lambda = .89; partial eta squared = .11. To control for the increase in the family-wise Type 1 error, a Bonferroni correction was used, and the significance level was adjusted to p = .007. Because family demands violated the assumption of equality of variance, a more conservative alpha level (p = .003) was used (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).
As expected, no significant difference was found between men and women on their level of work demands. Contrary to Hypothesis 6, there were no significant gender differences on family demands. A significant gender difference was obtained for WIF; however, the direction of the effect was opposite to expectation. In particular, women were more likely to experience higher levels of WIF than men, F(1, 318) = 22.1, p < .007. Therefore, Hypothesis 7a also was not supported. Further, Hypothesis 7b was not supported as no significant difference was found between men and women on their levels of FIW, p > .007.
Consistent with expectations, no significant gender difference was found on level of family satisfaction, even though women experienced higher levels of WIF. Moreover, men and women did not differ significantly on their level of job satisfaction or on their level of general life satisfaction.
Research Purpose 3
Model estimation. Observed variable path analysis was used to test the fit of the previously developed general model for men and for women separately. Table 3 shows the fit indices for the two subsamples. The overall fit for both models was acceptable; however, it is interesting to note that the fit of the male model was slightly bettor than that for the female model, as indicated by higher scores on the GFI, AGFI, and CFI, and the lower levels on the χ^sup 2^ significance test and the RMSEA. For the male model, the χ^sup 2^ was significant, which was expected given the large sample size. The GFI, AGFI, and RMSEA indicate good fit. The CFI, however, is slightly below the accepted value of .90. For the female model, the χ^sup 2^ was once again significant. The GFI and RMSEA indicate good fit; however, the CFI and AGFI are both below the accepted value of .90.
Parameter estimates for men. The standardized parameter estimates for the male model are presented in Figure 3. Using the hypotheses developed for the general model as a guide, five of the six parameter estimates were significant in the expected direction. Although job demands were positively related to WIF, β = .38, p < .001, family demands were not significantly related to FIW, β = -.03, p > .05. WIF was negatively related to family satisfaction, β = -.16, p < .05, while FIW was negatively related to job satisfaction, β = -.29, p < .001. Finally, general life satisfaction was predicted by both family satisfaction, β = .55, p < .001, and job satisfaction, β = .35, p < .001.
Parameter estimates for women. The standardized parameter estimates for the female model are presented in Figure 4. Five of the six parameter estimates were significant in the hypothesized direction. WIF was predicted by work demands, β = .25, p < .01, and FIW was predicted by family demands, β = .29, p > .001. In turn, although WIF was negatively related to family satisfaction, β = -.16, p < .05, FIW was not significantly related to job satisfaction, β = -.12, p > .05. General life satisfaction was predicted by both family satisfaction, β = .50, p < .001 and job satisfaction, β = .41, p <.001.
Research Purpose 3
Next, the path coefficients of the male and female models were compared to one another using an unpaired t-test (Cohen & Cohen, 1975). It was decided to utilize t-tests to examine the differences in the path coefficients in order to allow for a comparison to the work of Duxbury and Higgins (1991). A more conservative ρ value of .01 was used to indicate significance for the gender differences in the paths in this model to account for the fact that the model was not being tested as a whole (Duxbury & Higgins, 1991). The results provided evidence for Hypotheses 8a and 8b, 9a and 9b, and Research Questions 1a and 1b. Contrary to Hypothesis 8a, there were no significant gender differences in the relationship between work demands and WIF, p > .01. Hypothesis 8b, which stated that the relationship between family demands and FIW would be stronger for women than for men, was supported. Specifically, high family demands were more likely to lead to increased FIW for women than for men f(318) = -4.50, p<.01. Conversely, Hypothesis 9a was not supported. There was no gender difference in the path from WIF to family satisfaction, p > .01. Hypothesis 9b stated that FIW would be a more significant predictor of job satisfaction for men, and this relationship was supported, t(318) = -8.47, p < .01. Research Question 1 referred to the gender difference in the path from job satisfaction to general life satisfaction. There was no gender difference found, p > .01. However, the relationship between family satisfaction and general life satisfaction was stronger for men than for women, t (318) = 3.66, p<.01.3
Discussion
Research Purpose 1
The first objective of the current study was to evaluate an integrative model of the W-F interface using prospective data. Specifically, in this model: a) work demands and family demands were seen as antecedents to WIF and FIW, respectively; b) family and job satisfaction were seen as outcomes of WIF and FIW, respectively; and c) general life satisfaction was viewed as an outcome of both job and family satisfaction. The results of the path analysis were supportive of the proposed model. All six relationships were significant in the hypothesized direction, and the overall fit of the model was acceptable. These results are consistent with previous research (Aryee et al., 1999; Frone et al., 1992a). However, while previous studies have found support for these relationships, few studies have assessed both the antecedents and outcomes of WIF and FlW over several months (e.g., Huffman et al, 2003).
The results of this study indicate that the variables assessed at Time 1 had important links to those assessed at Time 2, and those assessed at Time 2 had links with variables assessed at Time 3, which speaks to the duration of the negative outcomes of WFC. However, many of the relationships found in the current study are weaker than those observed by other researchers. This may be a result of the prospective nature of the data. Because the majority of W-F literature has used cross-sectional designs, common method variance may have inflated the magnitude of the results.
Research Purpose 2
The second aim of this study was to examine mean gender differences on variables related to the W-F interface. First, consistent with the rational view of gender differences and the fact that all participants were working full-time, there was no significant difference in work demands for men and women. This finding is interesting because past research on the level of work demands has shown inconsistencies, possibly from differences in methodology. Many studies that have examined gender differences in the W-F interface have failed to match men and women on important variables (Duxbury & Higgins, 1991; Huffman et al., 2003). It is therefore possible that the gender differences in work demands found in the past have been due to the type and level of job men and women hold. Research has consistently shown that, on average, women tend to hold lower level jobs and work fewer hours when compared to men. This lack of matching may further affect past examinations of gender differences in WFC, as it has been suggested that job type will affect the ability to balance work and family demands. Specifically, managers and professionals are more likely to hold occupations that afford more flexibility and personal control over their work (e.g., Duxbury et al., 1994; O'Neil & Greenberger, 1994). As the women in the current study were all full-time employees and were matched with men on type of industry and level within the organization, it is not surprising that they experienced similar levels of demands from their jobs.
Contrary to expectations, there were no significant differences between men and women on their levels of family demands. This inconsistency with previous research could be attributed to the method of measuring family demands used in this study. Family demands were assessed using a composite as a proxy for family demands because with more children and dependents, family demands were expected to increase. We employed this measure instead of one based on the number of hours spent on family responsibilities, as research has shown that participants are often unable to reliably report hours spent on family tasks. However, it may be the case that in our study, the men and women had equivalent numbers of children and other dependents, and yet differed on the extent of their involvement in family caregiving activities. Thus, our findings may have been more consistent with past research had we measured hours spent on family activities or examined responsibility for various tasks. In future studies, conducting a latent variable analysis using the family demands composite with other measures of family demands may help prevent this threat to the internal validity of the family demands composite.
The finding that women were more likely to experience higher levels of WIF than men and that there were no significant differences found between men and women on their levels of FIW were also contrary to expectations. However, Gutek et al. (1991) also found women reported higher levels of WIF than men, despite spending equivalent amounts of time in paid work. It may be that because the family role has traditionally been more important to women, they may see their work role as a larger imposition than men do, and therefore experience greater levels of WIF than their male counterparts. Further, if women have more responsibility for family tasks than men do, then they might experience more WIF because they have more family activities for work to interfere with. This explanation, however, cannot be used to explain the lack of gender differences found for FIW. Although this finding is contrary to expectations, it is interesting to note that Gutek et al. (1991) also found that men and women did not have different levels of FIW. This finding contradicts the rational view of gender roles, providing an avenue for future research. Finally, as expected, there were no gender differences found on family satisfaction, job satisfaction, or life satisfaction. This indicates that despite women reporting more WIF than men, their levels of satisfaction with their family, job, and life were similar.
Research Purpose 3
The third purpose of this study was to test the general model of the W-F interface separately for men and women, comparing path coefficients to examine gender differences in how WFC is related to its antecedents and outcomes. Although previous studies have shown gender differences in mean scores on a range of variables relating to the W-F interface (e.g., Eagle, Miles, & Icenogle, 1997; Gutek et al, 1991), few studies have examined gender differences in the relationships between variables (e.g., Duxbury & Higgins, 1991). The results of the present research indicated that the overall fit of the models for men and women were acceptable, although the model fit better for men than for women.
MF and FlW. Contrary to expectations, the relationship between work demands and WIF did not show any significant gender differences. It could be that men and women have been socialized to cope with stress in different ways, which would make their levels of WIF similar, even when they experience WIF differently. Conversely, a significant gender difference was found where women were more likely to experience high levels of FIW when they had high family demands. Men's levels of family demands, however, did not affect their levels of FIW. This finding is interesting as it may indicate that although men and women have similar family demands, women are still feeling as though they are primarily responsible for their family, and thus feel increased FIW. Conversely, it could indicate that men have been socialized to not let their family responsibilities interfere with their work.
Satisfaction. Contrary to prediction, no significant gender differences were found for the relationship between WIF and family satisfaction. It was originally thought that this relationship would be stronger for women than for men, due to women viewing WIF as more of an imposition. However, research continually finds that WIF is a problem for both men and women, with both sexes experiencing more WIF than FIW (e.g., Frone et al, 1992b; Gutek et al., 1991) due to family boundaries being more permeable to work demands than the reverse (Prone et al., 1992b). In addition, this sample was composed of professionals who were likely working very long hours with heavy job demands. These conditions made it likely that work would interfere with family responsibilities for both the men and the women, negatively affecting the satisfaction with the quality of family life for both sexes.
The relationship between FIW and job satisfaction was equivocal given that results for the t-test showed the relationship was significantly stronger for men than for women, whereas the relationship was nonsignificant for the multisample analysis. As mentioned earlier, multisample analyses and t-tests are two separate analyses, and therefore the results are not truly comparable. The benefit of the ?-test method is that it assesses one path at a time, which allows the researcher to examine the fit of the model separately for men and women and also allowed us to make comparisons to the previous work conducted by Duxbury and Higgins (1991), while the advantage of the multisample analysis is that it assesses the paths simultaneously
There was no gender difference found for the relationship between job satisfaction and general life satisfaction. Interestingly, the results for the relationship between family satisfaction and general life satisfaction were equivocal. The multisample analysis showed no significant gender difference in the path between family satisfaction and general life satisfaction; however, the t-test indicated that family satisfaction was more likely to lead to general life satisfaction for men than for women.
Limitations and Directions for Future Research
The results from the present study should be considered in light of several limitations. First, although the study is less influenced by common method variance due to the large amount of time between administrations, the dependence on self-report measures could lead to a socially desirable response by the participants. Although it would have been beneficial to assess WFC at all three administration times, due to the constraints we had with respect to the amount of questions we could ask the participants, this was not feasible. Therefore, although this study was not truly predictive in that the best predictor of WFC at Time 2 would be prior levels of WFC at Time 1, this study still overcame the problem of common method variance that has occurred in much of the past research. Moreover, any major changes in both the work and family roles of participants were controlled for at all three times of administration.
Second, this study focused on gender (i.e., men and women) rather than gender roles (e.g., mother or father) or gender role orientation (e.g., masculinity and femininity) (Huffman et al., 2003). This is an important consideration because although gender is based on culture and learned behaviour, it does not account for the potential differences of identity within each gender. It is possible that these different levels of identity may be better predictors of WFC than gender. Understanding the mechanisms underlying these differences provides an interesting avenue to examine in future research. Further, because many WF scales have yet to be tested to establish validity for both genders, many of the gender differences found in W-F research could be attributable to gender-bias in measurement.
Third, the model put forth should be expanded to examine the W-F interface in more depth. There are many constructs that explain variance in WIF and FIW, and future research should assess more of them, and in a predictive manner. For example, although time spent in a role was examined in this study, research has also noted that the quality of the role as well as the type of role that the individual is fulfilling has an impact on the amount of conflict that is experienced (e.g., Cardenas, Major, & Bernas, 2004). Fourth, Prone et al. (1992a, 1997) have indicated a need to examine an indirect reciprocal relationship between WIF and FIW, which was not addressed in this study. Unfortunately, path analysis cannot handle these types of relationships, but perhaps future research could address this question. Further, the different facets of WIF and FIW can be addressed in future studies as there has yet to be an examination of WIF and FIW time-, strain-, and behaviour-based conflict with respect to gender.
Finally, only professional employees were examined because previous research has found differences between white and blue collar workers (e.g., Frone et al., 1992a). However, this restricts the generalizability of the results. Future research should investigate a wider range of occupations. This is important because the type of job individuals occupy will affect their ability to balance work and family demands (e.g., Duxbury et al., 1994). Further, it would be interesting to include measures that assess the amount of assistance the participants receive. Individuals in higher paying positions may not only be given more flexibility when dealing with work and family needs but they often have more resources (Duxbury & Higgins, 2001).
Conclusion
This study developed an integrative model to assess gender differences in the W-F interface. Results were generally consistent with previous research, indicating an asymmetry between men and women in their work and family roles. Although recent research suggests that gender differences in the antecedents and outcomes of WFC are outdated (e.g., Barnett & Hyde, 2001), these data suggest that the redistribution of roles within work and family have yet to occur. Although attitudes and behaviours towards work and family responsibilities are changing, it is not at the pace in which the Canadian workforce is evolving.
Given that the prevalence of WFC is expected to increase, this research is needed to develop programs, policies, and interventions for organizations that will best address the needs of their employees. Organizations should examine the work environment so women can pursue careers while allowing men to contribute more to their families' development. Furthermore, implementing interventions will aid in building healthier organizations, and therefore improve the health and well-being of employees.
This research was supported by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada awarded to the second and third authors.
[Reference]
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Received May 15, 2004
Revised November 30, 2004
Revised June 30, 2005
Accepted July 5, 2005
[Author Affiliation]
ALLYSON K. MCELWAIN and KAREN KORABIK, University of Guelph
HAZEL M. ROSIN, York University
[Author Affiliation]
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Karen Korabik, Department of Psychology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1 (Email: kkorabik@uoguelph.ca).
A convicted killer recently released from prison was charged Saturday with fatally shooting his brother during an argument and then killing five witnesses, including two of his brother's children, police said.
Three remaining children were critically wounded in the attack last Sunday, but one of them was able to tell investigators about their assailant, an arrest warrant affidavit said.
Jessie L. Dotson, 33, was arrested on Friday _ five days after the six bodies were discovered in a small rental house in a rough neighborhood called Binghampton. The affidavit said Dotson admitted to the killings.
"He tried to kill everyone in the house. He thought everyone in the house was dead," police Lt. Joe Scott said.
Dotson was charged with six counts of first-degree murder and three counts of attempted first-degree murder, police said. Among those killed was Dotson's brother, Cecil, 30, who was the father of all the children, ages 9 to 2 months.
Also killed were Hollis Seals, 33, Shindri Roberson, 25, and Marissa Rene Williams, 26, the mother of four of Cecil Dotson's children. Police identified the dead children as Cemario Dotson, 4, and Cecil Dotson, 2.
The surviving children remain under police custody at a children's hospital, but police declined to reveal their identities or their conditions.
One of the children "implicated Jessie Dotson as the person responsible," an arrest warrant affidavit said.
Police said the bodies of the victims were discovered Monday. The adults were shot with a semiautomatic handgun, while the children were stabbed with a knife or bludgeoned, police said.
The adults were found in the living room and the children were found in the two bedrooms of the residence and in the bathroom, Police Director Larry Godwin said.
Police said the bodies were discovered after relatives were unable to make contact with them, either by phone or in person.
Cecil Dotson and Seals each had extensive criminal records that include possession of illegal drugs and firearms. Cecil Dotson is identified in jail records as a known gang member.
Godwin said investigators at first thought the killings might have been some kind of "gang-related retaliation."
"I know the fear that gripped this community. I think we all felt it," Godwin said.
Records also show that Jessie Dotson pleaded guilty to second-degree murder in 1994 and spent 14 years in prison. He was released from prison in January. No other details were available.
District Attorney General Bill Gibbons said his office has not yet decided if it will seek the death penalty.
Jail records showed Dotson was not yet allowed visitors and no lawyer was listed for him. No court dates had been set.
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Preston fired manager Paul Simpson on Tuesday after the club slipped to one place above the League Championship relegation zone.
Simpson took over from Billy Davies in June 2006 after the club lost to Leeds in the playoff semifinals. Although he led the club to the top spot five months later _ the team's highest placing in 55 years _ Preston missed the 2007 playoffs and has yet to win away from home this season.
"Modern football is a cutthroat industry and is results based," Preston chairman Derek Shaw said. "Without an away win in the league this season, and with three away league wins in the whole of 2007, we felt we had to act now."
Assistant manager Rob Kelly, Billy Barr and Dave Timmins will take charge of the team while Preston seeks a long-term replacement for Simpson.
Activist investor Carl Icahn said Monday that replacing Yahoo Inc.'s current board of directors would ensure an acquisition deal with Microsoft Corp.
In urging shareholders to vote for his slate of nine directors, Icahn said he was confident the new board would "in very short order" present shareholders with an offer to sell the whole company or its search functions with large financial guarantees.
Icahn made a filing with the Securities and Exchange Commission Monday after Yahoo revealed late Saturday that it had spurned Microsoft's latest attempt to buy its online search engine in a joint proposal made with Icahn.
Icahn, who has no experience running an Internet company, would have been left in charge of Yahoo's remaining pieces had an agreement to sell the search engine to Microsoft been reached.
"During the next few weeks you will be hearing from us about how these changes can be effectuated and a transaction structured to enhance value for all shareholders," Icahn said in a letter to shareholders filed with the SEC.
Microsoft first offered to buy Yahoo five months ago, but the software maker ultimately walked away from a deal in May after last-ditch efforts to negotiate a mutually acceptable sale price failed. Icahn started a shareholder rebellion a few weeks later.
Hoping to fend off the revolt, Yahoo's board is now willing to sell the entire company to Microsoft for $47.5 billion, or $33 per share _ a price it rejected as too low 10 weeks ago. But Microsoft has said it has no interest in buying Yahoo in its entirety as long as the company's current board is in place.
Icahn said in his filing that he received assurances from Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer that Microsoft "would be willing to enter into discussions regarding a transaction immediately" if Icahn's slate is elected in an Aug. 1 vote.
Yahoo shares finished Friday at $23.57, after rising 10 percent last week on hopes that Microsoft's decision to side with Icahn might pave the way for a deal.
Microsoft's latest run at Yahoo indicates that the world's largest software company still believes it needs its rival's search engine to counter the intensifying threat posed by Google Inc.'s dominance of the Internet advertising market.
Yahoo shares fell 92 cents, or 3.9 percent, to $22.65 in morning trading, while Microsoft stock added 51 cents, or 2 percent, to $25.76.
